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Consider Ehrenfest's theorem: \begin{align} m\frac{d\langle x\rangle}{dt}=\langle p\rangle \\ \frac{d\langle p\rangle}{dt}=-\langle V'(x)\rangle. \end{align} Suppose $V(x)=x^2+x^{n+1}$ where $n>1$. Then $\langle V'(x)\rangle\neq V'(\langle x \rangle)$. Therefore the evolution of $\langle x\rangle$ and $\langle p\rangle$ is different to the classical prediction: recall that classically \begin{align} m\dot{x} &= p \\ \dot{p} &=- V'(x). \end{align} Now, we are told that if $\hbar\to 0 $ quantum mechanics reproduces classical physics. Therefore I would expect that $\langle x^n \rangle-\langle x \rangle^n$ is $O(\hbar)$ (because it is this term which is responsible for the deviation of the evolution of $\langle x\rangle$ and $\langle p\rangle$ from the classical prediction). However, from the quantum mechanical formulation, I don't see why this term is actually $O(\hbar)$.

So my question is: is $\langle x^n \rangle-\langle x \rangle^n$ actually $O(\hbar)$? If it isn't then how do I explain why $\hbar\to 0$ reproduces classical predictions for the evolution of $\langle x\rangle$ and $\langle p\rangle$?

[Notes: For one, the smallness of $\langle x^n \rangle-\langle x \rangle^n$ depends on the details of the state: if $\psi(x)=\delta(x-x_0)$ for example then $\langle x^n \rangle-\langle x \rangle^n=0$. But the classical limit should not depend on the details of the state, there must be some general arguments for why $\langle x^n \rangle-\langle x \rangle^n$ is small -- my own feeling is that it is controlled by $\hbar$, but, as my question says, I can't see why.]

DeltaTron
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1 Answers1

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The key point is that ℏ is dimensionful, with units of action (or angular momentum), and the classical limit is that in which the characteristic action quantities of the system are huge multiples of this ℏ. So, as you might find out in the quantum oscillator, and/or phase-space quantization, it makes sense to use natural units; in this case, instead of units (L,M,T), use units of action, S, energy, E, and P (why not?), and then absorb the units of E and P into the physical variables (nondimensionalize) so the only remaining units are those of action, S, namely ℏ.

In these units, both x and p are balanced to have units of $\sqrt \hbar$, and your quantity is automatically of $O(\hbar^{n/2})$. (And the uncertainty principle is memorable.)

Specifically, $$ [S]= \frac{ML^2}{T}, \qquad [E]=\frac{ML^2}{T^2}, \qquad [P]= \frac{ML}{T}, $$ so that $$ [M]= \frac{P^2}{E}, \qquad [T]=\frac{S}{E}, \qquad [L]= \frac{S}{P}, $$ where you observe the operators on the Schrödinger equation have units of E, (and the 1-D wavefunction has units of $\sqrt{P/S}$).

Again, if, in these units, the relevant actions are much larger than $\hbar$, the wavefunctions of the states are spiked, and you manifestly have your result; otherwise not, and you are stuck in an irredeemably quantum state.

Cosmas Zachos
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